The Billy Lids

In 1905, a 26-year-old patent clerk named Albert Einstein published four scientific papers that altered the way we view our universe - from the tiniest building blocks to its most massive galaxies. Some of these papers also became springboards launching many of the life-altering inventions produced during the past 100 years.

"There is scarcely any important fundamental idea in modern physics,"says Nobel laureate in physics Isidor Rabi, "whose origins does not trace back at least in part to Einstein." What exactly did Einstein discover over a century ago?

Unlocking the Secrets of Light

Einstein's paper published in March 1905 uncovered some secrets about the nature of light. Scientists had already discovered that as light travels through space, it seems to behave much like waves of water rippling across a pond. However, the wave theory could not explain why dim blue light generates an electric current when it strikes certain metals, whereas bright red light fails to do so. Einstein's paper helped to explain this so-called photoelectric effect.

Einstein argued that light can at times be considered to consist of small packets of energy, later called photons. When these photons are of the right energy level, or colour, they can dislodge electrons from the atoms of some metals. (Photons of red light are too weak to do the job.) This interaction causes an electric current to flow in the material. Modern inventions such as television camera tubes, solar power cells, and photographic light meters all relate to Einstein's description of the photoelectric effect.

Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for his way of explaining light. His paper helped lead the way to a new field of science called quantum theory. In turn, quantum theory laid the foundation for a host of applications including nuclear science, electronics, and nanotechnology.

Why the Pollen Dances

In 1905, Einstein also turned his attention to atoms and molecules. He provided a theoretical explanation of their effect on tiny pollen grains suspended in water. In 1827, a biologist named Robert Brown had peered through a microscope and noticed that pollen grains immersed in water jiggle about. He called the dance of the pollen Brownian motion, but he was unable to explain why it happened.

In his May 1905 paper, Einstein suggested how vibrating water molecules caused this Brownian motion. He not only calculated the size of the water molecules but also predicted the specific properties of their atoms. Other scientists built on these predictions, removing doubts concerning the existence of atoms. Modern physics is founded on the idea that matter is made of atoms.

Time is Relative

Einstein's special theory of relativity, published in June 1905, disagreed with a fundamental belief of scientists such as Isaac Newton - that the measurement of time is a constant throughout the universe. The implications of Einstein's now generally accepted theory seem quite bizarre.

For example, imagine that you and a friend perfectly synchronise your watches. Your friend then flies around the world, while you stay at home. When he returns, the time displayed by his watch will lag a fraction behind the time shown on your watch. From your perspective, time slowed down for your travelling friend. The difference is, of course, infinitesimal at human speeds. However, when approaching the speed of light, not only does time slow down significantly but objects also become smaller and their mass increases. Einstein's theory maintained that the speed of light, not time, is constant across the universe.

A Formula That Changed the World

In September 1905, Einstein published another paper, considered to be a mathematical footnote to his special theory of relativity. It contained the formula now synonymous with his work, E=mc². This equation says that the amount of energy released when an atom is split equals the loss of its mass times the speed of light squared.

As a result of the efforts of scientists like Einstein, mankind has learned much about the nature of the universe.

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It is inexpensive, instantly ready, and almost weightless. It sits comfortably in the pocket. It needs no power supply, it never leaks, and its marks can be erased. Children learn to write with it, accomplished artists create masterpieces with it , and most of us keep one handy for jotting down notes. Yes, the humble pencil is one of the most affordable and widely used writing instruments in the world. The amazing story of its invention and development begins with a chance discovery in rural England.

In the 16th century, lumps of a strange black substance were found beneath the hillside of Borrowdale, a valley in the Lake District of northern England. Although the mineral looked like coal, it did not burn; and it left a shiny, black easily erased mark on a writing surface. Initially, the substance had a variety of names - black lead, wad, and plumbago, meaning "that which acts like lead". Because it had a greasy texture, people wrapped chunks of it with sheepskin or short sticks of with string. No one knows who first thought of putting black lead into wooden holders, but by the 1560's, primitive pencils had reached the European continent.

Soon black lead was being mined and exported to meet the demands of artists; and in the 17th century, it was being used practically everywhere. At the same time, pencil makers experimented with black lead to produce a better writing instrument. Pure and easily extracted, the Borrowdale product became a target of thieves and black marketers. In response, the British Parliament passed a law in 1752 making the theft of the material punishable by imprisonment or banishment to a penal colony.

In 1779, Swedish chemist Carl W Scheele made the surprising discovery that black lead was not lead at all but a soft form of pure carbon. Ten years later German geologist Abraham G Werner named it graphite, from the Greek graphein, "to write". Yes, contrary to their name, lead pencils actually contain no lead at all!

For many years English graphite cornered the pencil-making industry because it was pure enough to use without further processing. Since European graphite was inferior, pencil manufacturers there experimented with ways to improve pencil leads. French engineer Nicolas-Jacques Conté mixed powdered graphite and clay, shaped the mixture into sticks, and fired them in a kiln. by varying the ratio of graphite to clay, he was able to make leads that produced different shades of black - a process still in use. Conté patented his discovery in 1975.

In the 19th century, pencil making became big business. Graphite was discovered in a number of places, including Siberia, Germany and what is now the Czech Republic. In Germany and then the United States, a number of factories opened up. Mechanisation and mass production drove prices down, and by the start of the 20th century, even school children were using pencils - unpainted "penny pencils" as they were called in the US.

With many billions manufactured world-wide each year, the pencil has become a sophisticated, versatile writing and drawing instrument. A typical wooden pencil can draw a line 56 kilometres long and write 45,000 words. Made of metal or plastic, mechanical (or, propelling) pencils hold thin leads that never need sharpening. In the place of graphite, coloured pencils use dyes and pigments that come in dozens of colours.

Versatile, robust, simple, and efficient, the lowly pencil shows no signs of obsolescence. Hence, for years to come, whether at home or at work, you may still hear someone ask, "Does anyone have a pencil?"

How does the lead get into the pencil? A solution of finely ground graphite, clay and water is forced through a narrow metal tube and comes out looking like a long string of spaghetti. After being dried, cut and fired in a kiln, the lead is immersed in hot oil and wax. The wood, usually cedar, which is easily sharpened, is sawed into slats - planed and grooved pieces of wood - half a pencil thick. The leads are inserted into the grooves on one slat, and a second slat is glued and pressed on top of the first. When the glue dries, the individual pencils are cut apart. After shaping, sand-papering, painting and stamping with the manufacturer's trademark and other details, the now seamless pencil is ready for use. Sometimes an eraser is attached to one end.

Which pencil should I use? To select the pencil you need, note the letters or numbers printed on the side of the pencil. These indicate the degree of hardness or softness. Softer leads leave a darker mark.

HB is a versatile, medium-grade lead.

B denotes softer leads. A number such as 2B or 6B denotes the degree of softness - the higher the number, the softer the lead.

H denotes harder leads. The higher the number 2H, 4H, 6H, and so on - the harder the lead.

F stands for fine point.

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There seems to be a fascination in human history with the naming of seven wonderful places to visit in the world. The most famous "Seven Wonders of the World" (of man-made places) were: Colossus of Rhodes, Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, Pharos of Alexandria, Pyramids of Giza, Statue of Zeus, and the Temple of Artemis. Of these, only the Pyramids of Giza are still standing. So, an organisation decided to hold a vote on the Internet to select the new official Seven Wonders and announce the winners on the date 7/7/7 (when else?). Over 100 million votes were cast on 21 different locations.

The following 7 candidates have been elected to represent global heritage throughout history. The listing is in random order, as announced at the Declaration Ceremony on 07.07.07. All the New 7 Wonders are equal and are presented as a group without any ranking.

The Great Wall of China (220 B.C and 1368 - 1644 A.D.) China

The Great Wall of China was built to link existing fortifications into a united defense system and better keep invading Mongol tribes out of China. It is the largest man-made monument ever to have been built and it is disputed that it is the only one visible from space. Many thousands of people must have given their lives to build this colossal construction.

Petra (9 B.C. - 40 A.D.), Jordan

On the edge of the Arabian Desert, Petra was the glittering capital of the Nabataean empire of King Aretas IV (9 B.C. to 40 A.D.). Masters of water technology, the Nabataeans provided their city with great tunnel constructions and water chambers. A theater, modelled on Greek-Roman prototypes, had space for an audience of 4,000. Today, the Palace Tombs of Petra, with the 42-meter-high Hellenistic temple façade on the El-Deir Monastery, are impressive examples of Middle Eastern culture.

Christ Redeemer (1931) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

This statue of Jesus stands some 38 meters tall, atop the Corcovado mountain overlooking Rio de Janeiro. Designed by Brazilian Heitor da Silva Costa and created by French sculptor Paul Landowski, it is one of the world’s best-known monuments. The statue took five years to construct and was inaugurated on October 12, 1931. It has become a symbol of the city and of the warmth of the Brazilian people, who receive visitors with open arms.

Machu Picchu (1460-1470), Peru

In the 15th century, the Incan Emperor Pachacútec built a city in the clouds on the mountain known as Machu Picchu ("old mountain"). This extraordinary settlement lies halfway up the Andes Plateau, deep in the Amazon jungle and above the Urubamba River. It was probably abandoned by the Incas because of a smallpox outbreak and, after the Spanish defeated the Incan Empire, the city remained 'lost' for over three centuries. It was rediscovered by Hiram Bingham in 1911.

The Pyramid at Chichén Itzá (before 800 A.D.) Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

Chichén Itzá, the most famous Mayan temple city, served as the political and economic centre of the Mayan civilization. Its various structures - the pyramid of Kukulkan, the Temple of Chac Mool, the Hall of the Thousand Pillars, and the Playing Field of the Prisoners – can still be seen today and are demonstrative of an extraordinary commitment to architectural space and composition. The pyramid itself was the last, and arguably the greatest, of all Mayan temples.

The Roman Colosseum (70 - 82 A.D.) Rome, Italy

This great amphitheatre in the centre of Rome was built to give favours to successful legionnaires and to celebrate the glory of the Roman Empire. Its design concept still stands to this very day, and virtually every modern sports stadium some 2,000 years later still bears the irresistible imprint of the Colosseum's original design. Today, through films and history books, we are even more aware of the cruel fights and games that took place in this arena, all for the joy of the spectators.

The Taj Mahal (1630 A.D.) Agra, India

This immense mausoleum was built on the orders of Shah Jahan, the fifth Muslim Mogul emperor, to honour the memory of his beloved late wife. Built out of white marble and standing in formally laid-out walled gardens, the Taj Mahal is regarded as the most perfect jewel of Muslim art in India. The emperor was consequently jailed and, it is said, could then only see the Taj Mahal out of his small cell window.

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Have you ever noticed the effect that colour has on our emotions? It isn't surprising that throughout history humans have chosen to add colour to fabrics, employing the process known as dyeing.

Dyes Used in Early Centuries

Until the second half of the 29th century, the substances used for dyeing fabrics came entirely from natural sources, such as plants, insects and shellfish. For example, the woad plant prodeced a blue dye, the weld plant a yellow dye, and the madder plant a red dye. A black dye came from the logwood tree, and a lichen named archil gave a violet dye. The murex shellfish produces a very costly purple dye, known as Tyrian, or imperial, purple. This dye coloured the garments worn by Roman emperors.

Long before there were Roman emperors, the prominent and wealthy wore clothes dyed with natural substances. Red dyes, for example, were produced from the female kermes insect.

The Process of Dyeing

Most dyeing processes are far more complex than simply dipping yarn or material into a dye solution. In many cases one stage of the dyeing process involves the use of a mordant, which is a substance that has an attraction for both the fibre and the dye. Through its use, dye bonds to the fibre and ceases to be water-soluble. Many chemicals are used as mordants, some of which are dangerous to handle.

Some dyeing processes create unpleasant smells. One of these is the lengthy and complex process that was used to produce Turkey red. This dye was used on cotton and produced a bright-red colour that was not affected by light, washing or bleaching. At one time the process involved 38 different stages and took as long as four months to complete!

The Arrival of Synthetic Dyes

The first dye that was not derived from natural sources is attributed to William Henry Perkin in 1856. Perkin discovered mauve, or mauveine, an intense purple dye. By the end of the 19th century many other synthetic dyes in brilliant colours had been developed. Today over 8,000 types of synthetic dyes are manufactured. The only natural products still in regular use are logwood and cochineal.

Challenge to Colour Fastness

When we buy clothes or materials, we want them to be colourfast. Nevertheless, many fade in sunlight or with repeated washing, particularly if detergents are used. Sometimes fabrics may discolour from perspiration or change colour when washed with other clothes. Fastness during the washing process depends on how strongly the dye molecules adhere to the fibres. Repeated washing and the effects of detergents designed to loosen stains separate the dye from the fibres, resulting in colour loss. Dye manufacturers test their products to see if the effects of light, washing, detergents and perspiration are within acceptable limits.

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Mount Etna, 3,300 metres high, the highest active volcano in Europe, located less than halfway down the eastern coast of Sicily.

In mythology, Etna was identified as the location of the forge of Volcan, home of the Cyclopses, and where the giant Enceladus laid (eruptions being his breath and earthquakes his motion). Etna's beauty, frequent eruptions, and long record of eruptions makes it one of the world's best known volcanoes. With hundreds of papers published on nearly every aspect of Etna's geology it is probably one of the world's most studied volcanoes.

A Long-Observed Volcano

The Arabs who dominated Sicily for a long time called the volcano the Mountain of Fire, and Etna has certainly lived up to that name by regularly spewing white-hot lava from its depths. Two of the oldest surviving testimonies to Etna's activity were penned by Pindar and Aeschylus, who both described an eruption that took place in 475 BC. More than once, the lava has given an amazing performance by making a fiery snakelike trail down the mountain before diving into the sea. This occurred in 396 BC, in 1329, and in 1669 the last of which is considered the most famous of its modern eruptions.

On that occasion, a tongue of lava some 2 kilometres wide and 25 kilometres long over-flowed Catania's city walls, swallowed up the homes of more than 27,000 people, and partially filled the city's harbour.

By all accounts, the volcano's activity intensified in the 20th century, during which there were many eruptions. The most violent, in 1928, destroyed the village of Mascali. Over the past few years, lava and ash emissions have continued to cause problems and anxiety for the local people.

The Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi well described the attachment that people who live at the foot of a volcano have to their land. He likened such people to the broom, a bush that often grows in volcanic environments. its yellow flowers are beautiful and radiant. They hold their heads high and refuse to fall until the torrent of lava reaches them. Once the eruption is over and the rock has cooled, the broom starts to grow again, strong and courageous, as it patiently gets back to work!

Etna Is Changing

In the opinion of volcanologists, this "friendly giant" seems to be changing. In the recent past, Etna has not been explosive in character, according to a warning given by French and Italian researchers, Etna "is slowly transforming itself from an effusive volcano, which means one with a slow lava flow and low gas emissions, into an explosive volcano." Hence Paola Del Carlo, a researcher at the Italian National Geophysical and Volcanology Instute of Catania, states that :during the past 30 years, both the effusive and the explosive activity of the volcano have become decidedly more intense, and it is dufficult to predict with precision what will happen in the future.

Despite instilling fear and commanding respect, Etna offers an extraordinary spectacle. When enveloped in white in the winter or clothed in dark brown in the summer or when quietly dominating the coastline, shaking earth and hearts, or lighting up the nights with fire, the volcano testifies to the power of Nature.

If you ever have the chance to visit beautiful Sicily, do not forget Etna. You will see it in the distance with its characteristic plume of smoke. "Don't worry if you hear rumbling," the locals are quick to mention. "It's just Etna's way of saying hello."

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What do the dead of the Ancient Egypt talk about? Is The Book of the Dead more about life than about death?

The Book of the Dead is not a book about death. It is a book about life that conquered death. Strangely enough but such effective title that has become as known as pyramids, mummies and papyrus does not coincide with the content and the idea of the book at all. Moreover, its meaning is opposite to its original title. The Book of the Dead is just a part of the problem…

It has been a long time since the Europeans started thinking of the Ancient Egypt as of the land of dead where living people worshiped death and prepared to die long beforehand. Unfortunately, this old deception is present even in the modern mass culture (consider, The Mummy movie, for instance). It can be partly explained by the sources of our knowledge – more than 95 percent of the monuments of the Ancient Egypt are found in tombs. Imagine what will a historian of the future think of our civilization if we leave so many necropolises?

At the same time, a non-expert will not associate all the Egyptian monuments with the world of the dead. Thus, for instance, the walls of some civilians’ tombs show different aspects of life on Nile: agriculture, crafts, hunting, fishing etc. And they are shown rather gaily! Humorous pictures are not an exception here. By the way, love for joke distinguished Egyptians from all other Arabs. It is here that the national character – not only anthropological type – is well-preserved. Unfortunately, humor of ancient Egyptians remains a closed topic for Egyptologists. It is not that the scientists are not interested – the problem is very difficult to solve. Laughter that was heard long time ago is like a smell that is elusive. It differs depending on epoch and nation and even on the level of the society. If a culture is based on individuality every person’s humour is peculiar. Even humour that is present in texts (such as play on words common among the Egyptian scriveners) is hard to grasp. Humour requires a historian to go deep into amorphous and fragile zone of mentality.

It is worthy of note that it is in the time of the New Kingdom (16-11 centuries B.C.), which was the most important period in the history of The Book; the number of humorous texts and pictures is increasing dramatically. A mythological tale “The Battle of Horus and Seth” where main Egyptian gods are humiliated dates back to this period of Egyptian history. Seth is presented here as a stupid hunk who dares insult the king of all gods Amon-Re. Even more amusing are the erotic pictures. There is even a kind of “erotic comic strip” (Turin erotic papyrus: pictures are remarkable in the sense that they are rather humorous than smutty).

The title The Book of the Dead became associated with funerary texts although Egyptologists know very well that this is just a conventional title. The original title of the back can be translated as The Book of Coming Forth by Day. It represents the basic meaning of this amazing text which is helping the dead to overcome all the dangers of the other world, go through the post-mortem judgment and to come back on the sunny barque of Re, that is to arise from the dead, or to be renewed as Egyptians used to say. The most important is to conquer the enemy – death – in order to live spiritually and sensually in a rejuvenated ever-young body in the land of eternal beauty together with dear ones. This book is a story about overcoming death and the ways to overcome it. One of the most significant chapters of the book illustrates the idea of post-mortem retribution.

The Book of the Deaf played a very important role in culture and religion of the ancient Egyptians. It was not a funerary ritual, a prayer book or a collection of myths. Neither of those. It is hard to find a proper name for this amazing and extremely important written masterpiece. It would be correct to say that it was everything for the Egyptians. Literature of such world religions as Christianity, Buddhism or Islam does not know any such work that could be compared with the Book of the Dead. It seems to be the quintessence of all spiritual, religious and worldview ideas of the ancient culture that had its own unique way in history (that lasted more then 3000 years!) and played a titanic role in the world culture.

Before the Book of the Dead (its oldest scrolls date back to the 17th-16th centuries B.C.) there was a powerful tradition of funeral literature – the Pyramid Texts, which were written at the end of the Old Kingdom (24th- 22nd centuries B.C.) and Sarcophagus Texts (21st – 18th centuries B.C.).

The Book may seem strange to us for it is a collection of practical sayings that were written in different periods of time and contains vague dialogues, magic formulas and texts that surprise with their vivid imagination and spiritual insight. Egyptians considered a fragile papyrus scroll to be almost the last hope for passing through the horrible world of snakes, scorpions, ghosts, blazing lakes and magical crystals. This world dates back to the immemorial times of primal initiation ceremonies that were well-preserved for thousands of years.

Egyptians considered their writing a sacred speech and thought it was invented by the Thoth, who was the god of wisdom and knowledge. The scrolls of sacred books were called the souls of the god Re. The divine origin of the Book of the Dead was obvious and as any divine object it was surrounded by mystery. One of its chapters claims that the book is more useful than any ceremonies and it should be hidden from the eyes of man.

This is how Egyptians themselves treated this sacred masterpiece. It is impossible to grasp the sense and spirit of their culture without understanding their own attitude towards this book. This book contains too many notions and beliefs to be underestimated.

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Many of the origins of the humble nursery rhyme reflect actual events in history! The secret meanings of the Nursery Rhyme have been lost in the passing of time. A nursery rhyme was often used to parody the royal and political events and people of the day. The humble Rhyme was used as a seemingly innocent vehicle to quickly spread subversive messages!

The relationship of many historical events to the Nursery Rhyme have been long forgotten. The Bubonic Plague and its symptoms were parodied in Ring around the Rosy and the English Queen Mary I was the 'star' of the Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary rhyme which featured a hidden reference to the Queen's treatment of Protestants using instruments of torture (silver bells) and execution by burning them alive at the stake! It's no wonder that this Queen has since been known as Bloody Mary! Witches and their 'familiars', like cats, frogs, mice and owls, are frequently, but obliquely, referred to in the words of a Nursery Rhyme as we have discussed in The Identity of Mother Goose.

The words to the Ring around the rosy children's ring game have their origin in English history. The historical period dates back to the Great Plague of London in 1665 (bubonic plague) or even before when the first outbreak of the Plague hit England in the 1300's. The symptoms of the plague included a rosy red rash in the shape of a ring on the skin (Ring around the rosy). Pockets and pouches were filled with sweet smelling herbs ( or posies) which were carried due to the belief that the disease was transmitted by bad smells. The term "Ashes Ashes" refers to the cremation of the dead bodies! The death rate was over 60% and the plague was only halted by the Great Fire of London in 1666 which killed the rats which carried the disease which was transmitting via water sources. The English version of "Ring around the rosy" replaces Ashes with (A-tishoo, A-tishoo) as violent sneezing was another symptom of the disease.

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